Food Neophobia and Animal Protein Intake in Children Aged 3-5 Years
A Cross-Sectional Study in Indonesia
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.24252/diversity.v6i1.56848Keywords:
animals proteins, children, dietary proteins, food neophobia, nutrientsAbstract
Food neophobia, defined as the avoidance of unfamiliar or familiar foods due to fear and negative perceptions, can significantly influence children’s dietary variety and nutritional adequacy. Previous studies have highlighted inconsistent findings on its relationship with protein intake, yet limited evidence exists in Indonesia. This study aimed to examine the association between food neophobia and animal protein consumption among toddlers aged 3–5 years in Semarang City, Indonesia. An observational analytic study with a cross-sectional design was conducted from May to July 2024. Data were collected through interviews with parents/caregivers using the Child Food Neophobia Scale (CFNS) and a Semi-Quantitative Food Frequency Questionnaire (SQ-FFQ). Statistical analysis applied Chi-Square tests and logistic regression at a 95% confidence level (p < 0.05). A total of 73 toddlers participated in the study. Findings revealed a significant correlation between food neophobia and frequency of dairy product consumption (p < 0.001), with neophobic children being 13.4 times more likely to consume dairy products than food-neutral children. However, no significant associations were observed with the adequacy or frequency of seafood, poultry, or red meat consumption. These findings indicate that while food neophobia may restrict dietary variety, the preference for dairy can serve as a compensatory nutrient source, particularly for calcium and protein, supporting growth and development. In the Islamic perspective, the inclusion of milk as a wholesome and pure food aligns with Quranic teachings, reinforcing family health practices that integrate both nutritional and spiritual well-being.
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References
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Costa, E., Niimi, J., & Collier, E. S. (2025). The negative association between food neophobia and sensory expectations revealed through analysis of consumers’ open-ended descriptions of seafood. Food Quality and Preference, 123, 105332. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2024.105332
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Helland, S. H., Bjørkkjær, T., Grasaas, E., & Øverby, N. C. (2023). Staff feeding practices, food neophobia, and educational level in early education and care settings: A cross-sectional study. Appetite, 180, 106379. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2022.106379
Hopkins, I., Farahnaky, A., Gill, H., Danaher, J., & Newman, L. P. (2023). Food neophobia and its association with dietary choices and willingness to eat insects. Frontiers in Nutrition, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2023.1150789
Hopkins, I., Farahnaky, A., Gill, H., Danaher, J., & Newman, L. P. (2023). Food neophobia and its association with dietary choices and willingness to eat insects. Frontiers in Nutrition, 10, 1150789. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2023.1150789
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Kutbi, H. A., Asiri, R. M., Alghamdi, M. A., Albassami, M. Z., Mosli, R. H., & Mumena, W. A. (2022). Food neophobia and its association with nutrient intake among Saudi children. Food quality and preference, 96, 104372. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2021.104372
Meher, C., Zaluchu, F., & Eyanoer, P. C. (2023). Local approaches and ineffectivity in reducing stunting in children: A case study of policy in Indonesia. F1000Research, 12, 217. https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.130902.1
Michel, F., Knaapila, A., Hartmann, C., & Siegrist, M. (2021). A multi-national comparison of meat eaters' attitudes and expectations for burgers containing beef, pea or algae protein. Food Quality and Preference, 91, 104195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2021.104195
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Puleo, S., Masi, P., Cavella, S., & Di Monaco, R. (2021). Oral sensitivity to flowability and food neophobia drive food preferences and choice. Foods, 10(5), 1024. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10051024
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Skouw, S., Chow, C. Y., Sørensen, H., Bech, A. C., Laureati, M., Olsen, A., & Bredie, W. L. (2023). A forced-choice pictographic method to measure food texture preferences among schoolchildren. Food Quality and Preference, 105, 104783. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2022.104783
Suryawan, A., Jalaludin, M. Y., Poh, B. K., Sanusi, R., Tan, V. M. H., Geurts, J. M., & Muhardi, L. (2022). Malnutrition in early life and its neurodevelopmental and cognitive consequences: a scoping review. Nutrition research reviews, 35(1), 136-149. http://doi.org/10.1017/S0954422421000159
Sutapa, P., Pratama, K. W., Rosly, M. M., Ali, S. K. S., & Karakauki, M. (2021). Improving motor skills in early childhood through goal-oriented play activity. Children, 8(11), 994. https://doi.org/10.3390/children8110994
Taylor, B., Ofori, K. F., Parsaeimehr, A., Akdemir Evrendilek, G., Attarwala, T., & Ozbay, G. (2025). Exploring the Complexities of Seafood: From Benefits to Contaminants. Foods, 14(9), 1461. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14091461
Tarinc, A., Aytekin, A., Ozbek, O. T., Ergün, G. S., Keles, A., Uslu, F., Keles, H., & Yayla, O. (2023). How Do Food Neophobia and Neophilia Moderate the Effect of Local Food Quality on Dining Satisfaction and Post-Dining Behavioral Intention in the Perspective of Sustainable Gastronomy Tourism? Sustainability, 15(12), 9510. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15129510
Torres, T. D. O., Gomes, D. R., & Mattos, M. P. (2020). Fatores associados à neofobia alimentar em crianças: revisão sistemática. Revista Paulista de Pediatria, 39, e2020089. https://doi.org/10.1590/1984-0462/2021/39/2020089
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Wrottesley, S. V., Mates, E., Brennan, E., Bijalwan, V., Menezes, R., Ray, S., Ali, Z., Yarparvar, A., Sharma, D., & Lelijveld, N. (2022). Nutritional status of school-age children and adolescents in low- and middle-income countries across seven global regions: a synthesis of scoping reviews. Public Health Nutrition, 26(1), 63–95. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1368980022000350
Xie, Q., Yong, C., Xiang, C., Xi, Y., Huo, J., Liang, J., Zou, H., Pan, Y., Wu, M., & Lin, Q. (2024). The Impact of Caregiver Pressure to Eat on Food Neophobia in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Cross-Sectional Study. Children, 11(5), 528. https://doi.org/10.3390/children11050528
Zaharia, S., Ghosh, S., Shrestha, R., Manohar, S., Thorne-Lyman, A. L., Bashaasha, B., Kabunga, N., Gurung, S., Namirembe, G., Appel, K. H., Liang, L., & Webb, P. (2021). Sustained intake of animal-sourced foods is associated with less stunting in young children. Nature Food, 2(4), 246–254. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43016-021-00259-z
Białek-Dratwa, A., & Kowalski, O. (2023). Infant complementary feeding methods and subsequent occurrence of food neophobia—A cross-sectional study of Polish children aged 2–7 years. Nutrients, 15(21), 4590. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15214590
Cappellotto, M., & Olsen, A. (2021). Food texture acceptance, sensory sensitivity, and food neophobia in children and their parents. Foods, 10(10), 2327. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10102327
Chow, C. Y., Bech, A. C., Sørensen, H., Olsen, A., & Bredie, W. L. (2024). Food texture preferences in early childhood: Insights from 3–6 years old children and parents. Food Quality and Preference, 113, 105063. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2023.105063
Costa, A., Silva, C., & Oliveira, A. (2019). Food neophobia and its association with food preferences and dietary intake of adults. Nutrition & Dietetics, 77(5), 542–549. Portico. https://doi.org/10.1111/1747-0080.12587
Costa, E., Niimi, J., & Collier, E. S. (2023). The relationship between food neophobia and hedonic ratings of novel foods may be mediated by emotional arousal. Food Quality and Preference, 109, 104931. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2023.104931
Costa, E., Niimi, J., & Collier, E. S. (2025). The negative association between food neophobia and sensory expectations revealed through analysis of consumers’ open-ended descriptions of seafood. Food Quality and Preference, 123, 105332. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2024.105332
De Almeida, P. C., Nakano, E. Y., Vasconcelos, I. A. L., Zandonadi, R. P., Raposo, A., Saraiva, A., Alturki, H. A., & Botelho, R. B. A. (2024). Food Neophobia in Children: A Case Study in Federal District/Brazil. Nutrients, 16(17), 2962. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16172962
Del Campo, C., Bouzas, C., & Tur, J. A. (2024). Risk Factors and Consequences of Food Neophobia and Pickiness in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review. Foods, 14(1), 69. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14010069
Długoński, Ł., Skotnicka, M., Zborowski, M., Skotnicki, M., Folwarski, M., & Bromage, S. (2025). The Relationship Between the Level of Food Neophobia and Children’s Attitudes Toward Selected Food Products. Nutrients, 17(8), 1347. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu17081347
Dos Anjos, L. A., dos Santos Vieira, D. A., Siqueira, B. N. F., Voci, S. M., Botelho, A. J., & da Silva, D. G. (2021). Low adherence to traditional dietary pattern and food preferences of low-income preschool children with food neophobia. Public Health Nutrition, 24(10), 2859-2866. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1368980020003912
Elgharbawy, A., & Azmi, N. A. N. (2022). Food as medicine: How eating halal and tayyib contributes to a balanced lifestyle. Halalsphere, 2(1), 86-97. https://doi.org/10.31436/hs.v2i1.39
Endrinikapoulos, A., Afifah, D. N., Mexitalia, M., Andoyo, R., Hatimah, I., & Nuryanto, N. (2023). Study of the importance of protein needs for catch-up growth in Indonesian stunted children: a narrative review. SAGE Open Medicine, 11. https://doi.org/10.1177/20503121231165562
Estay, K., Zhong, F., & Guinard, J. X. (2023). Food neophobia in early childhood: a cross cultural study. Food Quality and Preference, 111, 105001. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2023.105001
FAO. (2019). World food and agriculture statistical pocketbook 2019. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
Faria, A. A., & Kang, J. (2022). It's not just about the food: Motivators of food patterns and their link with sustainable food neophobia. Appetite, 174, 106008. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2022.106008
Günden, C., Atakan, P., Yercan, M., Mattas, K., & Knez, M. (2024). Consumer response to novel foods: A review of behavioral barriers and drivers. Foods, 13(13), 2051. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13132051
Hazley, D., McCarthy, S. N., Stack, M., Walton, J., McNulty, B. A., Flynn, A., & Kearney, J. M. (2022). Food neophobia and its relationship with dietary variety and quality in Irish adults: Findings from a national cross-sectional study. Appetite, 169, 105859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2021.105859
Helland, S. H., Bjørkkjær, T., Grasaas, E., & Øverby, N. C. (2023). Staff feeding practices, food neophobia, and educational level in early education and care settings: A cross-sectional study. Appetite, 180, 106379. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2022.106379
Hopkins, I., Farahnaky, A., Gill, H., Danaher, J., & Newman, L. P. (2023). Food neophobia and its association with dietary choices and willingness to eat insects. Frontiers in Nutrition, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2023.1150789
Hopkins, I., Farahnaky, A., Gill, H., Danaher, J., & Newman, L. P. (2023). Food neophobia and its association with dietary choices and willingness to eat insects. Frontiers in Nutrition, 10, 1150789. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2023.1150789
Jaya, P. H. I., Izudin, A., Aditya, R., & Saptoni, S. (2025). Exploring local experiences in reducing childhood stunting in Indonesia: towards an agenda of welfare provision. Asia Pacific Journal of Social Work and Development, 1-24. https://doi.org/10.1080/29949769.2025.2485912
Khusun, H., Februhartanty, J., Anggraini, R., Mognard, E., Alem, Y., Noor, M. I., Karim, N., Laporte, C., Poulain, J.P., Monsivais, P., & Drewnowski, A. (2022). Animal and Plant Protein Food Sources in Indonesia Differ Across Socio-Demographic Groups: Socio-Cultural Research in Protein Transition in Indonesia and Malaysia. Frontiers in Nutrition, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2022.762459
Klink, U., Mata, J., Frank, R., & Schüz, B. (2022). Socioeconomic differences in animal food consumption: Education rather than income makes a difference. Frontiers in Nutrition, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2022.993379
Kutbi, H. A., Asiri, R. M., Alghamdi, M. A., Albassami, M. Z., Mosli, R. H., & Mumena, W. A. (2022). Food neophobia and its association with nutrient intake among Saudi children. Food quality and preference, 96, 104372. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2021.104372
Meher, C., Zaluchu, F., & Eyanoer, P. C. (2023). Local approaches and ineffectivity in reducing stunting in children: A case study of policy in Indonesia. F1000Research, 12, 217. https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.130902.1
Michel, F., Knaapila, A., Hartmann, C., & Siegrist, M. (2021). A multi-national comparison of meat eaters' attitudes and expectations for burgers containing beef, pea or algae protein. Food Quality and Preference, 91, 104195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2021.104195
Niri, S. A. M. (2021). Food Health in the View of Islam. Journal of Nutrition and Food Security. https://doi.org/10.18502/jnfs.v6i3.6833
Puleo, S., Masi, P., Cavella, S., & Di Monaco, R. (2021). Oral sensitivity to flowability and food neophobia drive food preferences and choice. Foods, 10(5), 1024. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10051024
Siddiqui, S. A., Zannou, O., Karim, I., Kasmiati, Awad, N. M. H., Gołaszewski, J., Heinz, V., & Smetana, S. (2022). Avoiding Food Neophobia and Increasing Consumer Acceptance of New Food Trends—A Decade of Research. Sustainability, 14(16), 10391. https://doi.org/10.3390/su141610391
Skouw, S., Chow, C. Y., Sørensen, H., Bech, A. C., Laureati, M., Olsen, A., & Bredie, W. L. (2023). A forced-choice pictographic method to measure food texture preferences among schoolchildren. Food Quality and Preference, 105, 104783. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2022.104783
Suryawan, A., Jalaludin, M. Y., Poh, B. K., Sanusi, R., Tan, V. M. H., Geurts, J. M., & Muhardi, L. (2022). Malnutrition in early life and its neurodevelopmental and cognitive consequences: a scoping review. Nutrition research reviews, 35(1), 136-149. http://doi.org/10.1017/S0954422421000159
Sutapa, P., Pratama, K. W., Rosly, M. M., Ali, S. K. S., & Karakauki, M. (2021). Improving motor skills in early childhood through goal-oriented play activity. Children, 8(11), 994. https://doi.org/10.3390/children8110994
Taylor, B., Ofori, K. F., Parsaeimehr, A., Akdemir Evrendilek, G., Attarwala, T., & Ozbay, G. (2025). Exploring the Complexities of Seafood: From Benefits to Contaminants. Foods, 14(9), 1461. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14091461
Tarinc, A., Aytekin, A., Ozbek, O. T., Ergün, G. S., Keles, A., Uslu, F., Keles, H., & Yayla, O. (2023). How Do Food Neophobia and Neophilia Moderate the Effect of Local Food Quality on Dining Satisfaction and Post-Dining Behavioral Intention in the Perspective of Sustainable Gastronomy Tourism? Sustainability, 15(12), 9510. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15129510
Torres, T. D. O., Gomes, D. R., & Mattos, M. P. (2020). Fatores associados à neofobia alimentar em crianças: revisão sistemática. Revista Paulista de Pediatria, 39, e2020089. https://doi.org/10.1590/1984-0462/2021/39/2020089
United Nation. (2018). Goal 2. Hunger. https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/hunger/
Wrottesley, S. V., Mates, E., Brennan, E., Bijalwan, V., Menezes, R., Ray, S., Ali, Z., Yarparvar, A., Sharma, D., & Lelijveld, N. (2022). Nutritional status of school-age children and adolescents in low- and middle-income countries across seven global regions: a synthesis of scoping reviews. Public Health Nutrition, 26(1), 63–95. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1368980022000350
Xie, Q., Yong, C., Xiang, C., Xi, Y., Huo, J., Liang, J., Zou, H., Pan, Y., Wu, M., & Lin, Q. (2024). The Impact of Caregiver Pressure to Eat on Food Neophobia in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Cross-Sectional Study. Children, 11(5), 528. https://doi.org/10.3390/children11050528
Zaharia, S., Ghosh, S., Shrestha, R., Manohar, S., Thorne-Lyman, A. L., Bashaasha, B., Kabunga, N., Gurung, S., Namirembe, G., Appel, K. H., Liang, L., & Webb, P. (2021). Sustained intake of animal-sourced foods is associated with less stunting in young children. Nature Food, 2(4), 246–254. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43016-021-00259-z
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2025-08-31
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Khoirunnisa, N. T., Purwanti, R., Nuryanto, N., & Rahadiyanti, A. (2025). Food Neophobia and Animal Protein Intake in Children Aged 3-5 Years: A Cross-Sectional Study in Indonesia. Diversity: Disease Preventive of Research Integrity, 6(1), 32–39. https://doi.org/10.24252/diversity.v6i1.56848
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