Corrections are issued to address genuine unintended errors that do not undermine the overall conclusions of the research:

• Erratum: Published to correct significant production errors introduced by the journal (e.g., formatting faults, missing tables/figures, or typographical errors in metadata).
• Corrigendum: Published when authors identify notable omissions or errors in their published work (e.g., author names, affiliations, funding details, or minor factual inaccuracies).
• Permanent Linkage: All notices of correction receive a distinct DOI, clearly state the changes made, and are permanently linked to the original published article.

• Expression of Concern: Editors may issue a formal notice if an ongoing investigation into potential misconduct yields inconclusive evidence, but substantial doubts remain about the validity of the work.
• Grounds for Retraction: An article will be retracted in cases of clear evidence of unreliable data, data fabrication/falsification, severe plagiarism, duplicate/redundant publication, copyright infringement, or compromised peer review.
• Retraction Protocol: The original publication is not removed from the journal website. Instead, a prominent "RETRACTED" watermark is added to the PDF version, accompanied by an explicit retraction notice detailing the reasons and parties involved.